The published research behind each peptide.

BPC-157 (injection and capsules), TB-500, KPV, GHK-Cu (injection and topical), the Recovery Blends, and ARA-290.

Vasireddi N, et al. Emerging Use of BPC-157 in Orthopaedic Sports Medicine: A Systematic Review. 2025.

36 studies through mid-2024: 35 in animals and 1 in humans. The best single overview of the evidence and its gaps.

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW

Józwiak M, et al. Multifunctionality and Possible Medical Application of the BPC 157 Peptide: Literature and Patent Review. Pharmaceuticals 2025;18:185.

Independent review raising concerns about the angiogenic and nitric-oxide effects and the concentration of research in one group.

REVIEW

Lee E, Padgett B. Intra-Articular Injection of BPC 157 for Multiple Types of Knee Pain. Altern Ther Health Med 2021.

Uncontrolled retrospective report of knee injections; the only musculoskeletal human data.

HUMAN CASE SERIES

Lee E, Walker C, Ayadi B. Effect of BPC-157 on Symptoms in Patients with Interstitial Cystitis: A Pilot Study. 2024.

Small uncontrolled pilot in interstitial cystitis.

HUMAN PILOT

Lee E, Burgess K. Safety of Intravenous Infusion of BPC 157 in Humans: A Pilot Study. 2025.

Small IV safety pilot.

HUMAN SAFETY PILOT

A Narrative Review of BPC-157 for Musculoskeletal Healing. Curr Rev Musculoskelet Med 2025.

Clinician-oriented narrative review.

REVIEW

Xu C, et al. Preclinical safety evaluation of body protective compound-157. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2020.

Formal preclinical safety study.

ANIMAL TOXICOLOGY

McGuire F, et al. Thymosin Beta-4 and TB-500 in Tissue Healing, Regeneration, and Musculoskeletal Repair: A Scoping Review. Applied Sciences 2026.

80 studies through March 2026; most evaluated full-length thymosin beta-4 rather than TB-500.

SCOPING REVIEW

Malinda KM, et al. Thymosin beta4 accelerates wound healing. J Invest Dermatol 1999.

Foundational wound-healing study.

ANIMAL STUDY

Sosne G, et al. Thymosin beta 4: a novel corneal wound healing and anti-inflammatory agent. Clin Ophthalmol 2007.

Corneal repair, the area with the strongest human data.

REVIEW

RegeneRx. Phase 2 study of thymosin beta 4 on wound healing in epidermolysis bullosa (NCT00311766).

Human trial record with posted results.

REGISTERED TRIAL

Dalmasso G, et al. PepT1-mediated tripeptide KPV uptake reduces intestinal inflammation. Gastroenterology 2008;134:166–178.

KPV is absorbed by gut-lining cells and calmed colitis in mice at very low doses; the foundation for its gut use.

ANIMAL AND CELL STUDY

Pickart L, Margolina A. Regenerative and Protective Actions of the GHK-Cu Peptide in the Light of the New Gene Data. Int J Mol Sci 2018;19:1987.

The standard review of GHK-Cu's effects on collagen, wound healing, and gene expression.

REVIEW (FREE FULL TEXT)

Pickart L, et al. GHK Peptide as a Natural Modulator of Multiple Cellular Pathways in Skin Regeneration. Biomed Res Int 2015.

Skin-focused review; useful for aesthetic patient content.

REVIEW (FREE FULL TEXT)

Pyo HK, et al. The effect of tripeptide-copper complex on human hair growth in vitro. Arch Pharm Res. 2007.

Copper tripeptide lengthened human hair follicles and increased growth of the cells at their base in the lab. The basis for the scalp solution; no human trials yet.

LAB STUDY

Dahan A, et al. ARA 290 improves symptoms in patients with sarcoidosis-associated small nerve fiber loss and increases corneal nerve fiber density. Mol Med. 2013.

Four weeks of 4 mg daily improved neuropathic symptoms and increased small nerve fibers measured in the cornea.

RCT

Culver DA, et al. Cibinetide improves corneal nerve fiber abundance in patients with sarcoidosis-associated small nerve fiber loss and neuropathic pain. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2017.

A dose-ranging trial confirmed increases in small nerve fibers.

RCT

Brines M, et al. ARA 290, a nonerythropoietic peptide engineered from erythropoietin, improves metabolic control and neuropathic symptoms in patients with type 2 diabetes. Mol Med. 2015.

In type 2 diabetes, improved neuropathic symptoms and blood sugar control.

RCT

Semaglutide and tirzepatide trials.

Wilding JPH, et al. Once-Weekly Semaglutide in Adults with Overweight or Obesity (STEP 1). N Engl J Med 2021;384:989–1002.

About 15% mean weight loss at 68 weeks versus about 2% with placebo.

RCT

Lincoff AM, et al. Semaglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Obesity without Diabetes (SELECT). N Engl J Med 2023;389:2221–2232.

Fewer heart attacks, strokes, and cardiovascular deaths in patients with heart disease and overweight.

RCT

Jastreboff AM, et al. Tirzepatide Once Weekly for the Treatment of Obesity (SURMOUNT-1). N Engl J Med 2022;387:205–216.

2,539 adults; substantial, sustained weight loss at all three doses over 72 weeks.

RCT

Tesamorelin, sermorelin, ipamorelin, CJC-1295, IGF-1 LR3, and ibutamoren.

Falutz J, et al. Metabolic Effects of a Growth Hormone–Releasing Factor in Patients with HIV. N Engl J Med 2007;357:2359–2370.

412 patients; visceral fat fell 15.2% on tesamorelin versus a 5% rise on placebo over 26 weeks.

RCT (FREE ARTICLE)

Falutz J, et al. Pooled analysis of two phase 3 tesamorelin trials with safety extension. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2010.

Longer-term efficacy and safety data.

POOLED RCT ANALYSIS

Prakash A, Goa KL. Sermorelin: a review of its use in the diagnosis and treatment of children with idiopathic growth hormone deficiency. BioDrugs 1999.

The reference review from the period when sermorelin was FDA-approved.

REVIEW

Sinha DK, et al. Beyond the androgen receptor: the role of growth hormone secretagogues in the modern management of body composition in hypogonadal males. Transl Androl Urol 2020.

Clinician review of sermorelin, ipamorelin, and related secretagogues.

REVIEW (FREE FULL TEXT)

Raun K, et al. Ipamorelin, the first selective growth hormone secretagogue. Eur J Endocrinol 1998;139:552–561.

Showed GH release without the cortisol and prolactin rises of older GHRPs.

ANIMAL STUDY

Gobburu JV, et al. Pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic modeling of ipamorelin in human volunteers. Pharm Res 1999.

Dose-proportional GH release in healthy men.

HUMAN STUDY

Teichman SL, et al. Prolonged stimulation of GH and IGF-I secretion by CJC-1295 in healthy adults. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006;91:799–805.

A single dose raised IGF-1 for over a week; explains the DAC versus no-DAC difference.

HUMAN RCT (DAC FORM)

Ionescu M, Frohman LA. Pulsatile secretion of GH persists during continuous stimulation by CJC-1295. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006.

Natural GH pulses were preserved.

HUMAN STUDY

Steeb CB, et al. Administration of IGF-I peptides for three days stimulates proliferation of the small intestinal epithelium in rats. Gut 1995.

LR3 IGF-I stimulated gut growth in rats.

ANIMAL STUDY (FREE FULL TEXT)

Steeb CB, et al. Systemic infusion of IGF-I or LR3 IGF-I stimulates visceral organ growth in suckling rats. Am J Physiol 1997.

Kidney and spleen weights rose by up to 85% and 76%; relevant to organ-growth safety counseling.

ANIMAL STUDY

Nass R, et al. Effects of an oral ghrelin mimetic on body composition and clinical outcomes in healthy older adults: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2008.

Two years of daily ibutamoren in adults 60 to 81 raised growth hormone and IGF-1 to young-adult levels and added lean mass, but did not improve strength or function, and fasting glucose rose.

RCT

Copinschi G, et al. Prolonged oral treatment with MK-677, a novel growth hormone secretagogue, improves sleep quality in man. Neuroendocrinology. 1997.

Improved sleep quality, including more REM sleep.

HUMAN STUDY

Adunsky A, et al. MK-0677 (ibutamoren mesylate) for the treatment of patients recovering from hip fracture: a multicenter, randomized, placebo-controlled phase IIb study. Arch Gerontol Geriatr. 2011.

Stopped early after a small number of elderly patients developed heart failure, which is why heart failure is an exclusion.

RCT

NAD+, glutathione, MOTS-c, SS-31, AOD-9604, 5-Amino-1MQ, and methylene blue.

Conze D, et al. Safety and Metabolism of Long-term Administration of NIAGEN (Nicotinamide Riboside Chloride). Sci Rep 2019.

Nicotinamide riboside raised blood NAD+ by up to 142% with no increase in side effects over placebo.

HUMAN RCT (FREE FULL TEXT)

Martens CR, et al. Chronic nicotinamide riboside supplementation is well-tolerated and elevates NAD+ in healthy middle-aged and older adults. Nat Commun 2018.

Raised NAD+ in older adults; clinical benefits were modest.

HUMAN RCT

Arjinpathana N, Asawanonda P. Glutathione as an oral whitening agent: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Dermatolog Treat 2012.

60 participants; modest lightening at some skin sites over 4 weeks.

HUMAN RCT

Lee C, et al. The mitochondrial-derived peptide MOTS-c promotes metabolic homeostasis and reduces obesity and insulin resistance. Cell Metab 2015.

The discovery paper: prevented diet-induced obesity and insulin resistance in mice.

ANIMAL STUDY (FREE FULL TEXT)

Reynolds JC, et al. MOTS-c is an exercise-induced mitochondrial-encoded regulator of age-dependent physical decline. Nat Commun 2021.

Exercise raises MOTS-c in humans; treatment improved physical capacity in older mice.

ANIMAL AND HUMAN OBSERVATIONAL

Thompson WR, et al. Long-term efficacy and safety of elamipretide in Barth syndrome: 168-week open-label extension of TAZPOWER. Genet Med 2024.

The long-term data behind the 2025 approval.

OPEN-LABEL EXTENSION

Elamipretide versus natural history controls in Barth syndrome. Orphanet J Rare Dis 2022.

Explains that the randomized phase missed its endpoints while the extension showed gains.

COMPARATIVE STUDY (FREE FULL TEXT)

TAZPOWER trial record (NCT03098797).

Official trial record.

REGISTERED TRIAL

Heffernan MA, et al. Increase of fat oxidation and weight loss in obese mice caused by chronic treatment with human GH or a modified C-terminal fragment. Int J Obes 2001.

The mouse data behind AOD-9604; the human obesity trial was never published and did not meet its endpoint.

ANIMAL STUDY

Neelakantan H, et al. Selective and membrane-permeable small molecule inhibitors of NNMT reverse high fat diet-induced obesity in mice. Biochem Pharmacol 2018.

Reduced body weight and fat mass in obese mice without reducing food intake.

ANIMAL STUDY (FREE FULL TEXT)

Babula JJ, et al. NNMT inhibition mitigates obesity-related metabolic dysfunctions. Diabetes Obes Metab 2024.

Studies 5-Amino-1MQ specifically, including its pharmacokinetics in mice.

ANIMAL STUDY (FREE FULL TEXT)

Rodriguez P, et al. Multimodal randomized functional MR imaging of the effects of methylene blue in the human brain. Radiology. 2016.

A single dose improved memory recall and related brain activity on functional MRI in a small group of healthy adults.

HUMAN RCT

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Drug safety communication on methylene blue and serotonergic psychiatric medications. 2011.

Serotonin syndrome when methylene blue is given with serotonergic antidepressants. The reason every patient is screened before prescribing.

OFFICIAL FDA NOTICE

Gauthier S, et al. Efficacy and safety of tau-aggregation inhibitor therapy in patients with mild or moderate Alzheimer disease: a randomised, controlled, double-blind, parallel-arm, phase 3 trial. Lancet. 2016.

A related compound did not slow Alzheimer disease.

RCT

PT-141, kisspeptin, Melanotan II, oxytocin, hCG, and enclomiphene.

Kingsberg SA, et al. Bremelanotide for the Treatment of Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder: Two Randomized Phase 3 Trials. Obstet Gynecol 2019.

1,267 women; improved desire and reduced distress; nausea was common.

RCT

Simon JA, et al. Long-Term Safety and Efficacy of Bremelanotide for HSDD. Obstet Gynecol 2019.

52-week safety data.

OPEN-LABEL EXTENSION

Dhillo WS, et al. Kisspeptin-54 stimulates the hypothalamic-pituitary gonadal axis in human males. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005.

Raised LH, FSH, and testosterone in healthy men.

HUMAN RCT (CROSSOVER)

Jayasena CN, et al. Kisspeptin-54 in women with hypothalamic amenorrhea: acute stimulation but tachyphylaxis with chronic dosing. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2009.

Shows the response fades with continuous dosing; relevant to scheduling.

HUMAN STUDY

Peters B, et al. Melanotan II: a possible cause of renal infarction: review of the literature and case report. CEN Case Rep 2020.

Reviews reported kidney injury, rhabdomyolysis, and other serious effects.

CASE REPORT AND REVIEW

Hadley ME, Dorr RT. Melanocortin peptide therapeutics: historical milestones, clinical studies and commercialization. Peptides 2006.

History of Melanotan I and II, and how bremelanotide came from Melanotan II.

REVIEW

DermNet. Melanotan II.

Plain-language summary of side effects and risks; a good model for patient content.

CLINICAL REFERENCE

Muin DA, et al. Effect of long-term intranasal oxytocin on sexual dysfunction in premenopausal and postmenopausal women: a randomized trial. Fertil Steril. 2015.

In the largest trial in women, sexual function improved about equally with oxytocin and placebo.

RCT

Behnia B, et al. Differential effects of intranasal oxytocin on sexual experiences and partner interactions in couples. Horm Behav. 2014.

In couples, nasal oxytocin modestly intensified orgasm and closeness afterward, more so in men.

HUMAN RCT (CROSSOVER)

Hsieh TC, et al. Concomitant intramuscular human chorionic gonadotropin preserves spermatogenesis in men undergoing testosterone replacement therapy. J Urol. 2013.

Men on testosterone taking 500 IU of hCG every other day kept their sperm production over a year of follow-up.

HUMAN STUDY

Coviello AD, et al. Low-dose human chorionic gonadotropin maintains intratesticular testosterone in normal men with testosterone-induced gonadotropin suppression. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005.

Low doses of hCG kept testosterone inside the testes near normal while testosterone therapy suppressed the body’s own signal.

RCT

Wiehle RD, et al. Enclomiphene citrate stimulates testosterone production while preventing oligospermia: a randomized phase II clinical trial comparing topical testosterone. Fertil Steril. 2014.

Raised testosterone while preserving sperm counts, unlike testosterone gel, which lowered them.

RCT

Kim ED, et al. Oral enclomiphene citrate raises testosterone and preserves sperm counts in obese hypogonadal men, unlike topical testosterone: restoring instead of replacing testosterone. BJU Int. 2016.

Two phase 3 trials: testosterone restored to the normal range with sperm counts maintained.

RCT

Semax and Selank (alone or combined), Epithalon, and thymosin alpha-1.

Dolotov OV, et al. Semax regulates BDNF and trkB expression in the rat hippocampus. Brain Res 2006.

The core mechanism study behind Semax's cognitive use.

ANIMAL STUDY

Dmitrieva VG, et al. Semax and Pro-Gly-Pro activate the transcription of neurotrophins after cerebral ischemia. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2010.

Stroke-model data supporting its Russian stroke use.

ANIMAL STUDY (FREE FULL TEXT)

Syunyakov T, et al. Rapid and slow response during treatment of generalized anxiety disorder with Selank. Eur Psychiatry 2012.

20 patients with generalized anxiety improved on intranasal Selank; small and uncontrolled.

HUMAN STUDY (ABSTRACT)

Volkova A, et al. GABA, Selank, and Olanzapine Affect the Expression of Genes Involved in GABAergic Neurotransmission in IMR-32 Cells. Front Pharmacol 2017.

Mechanism work comparing Selank with benzodiazepine-type effects.

LAB STUDY (FREE FULL TEXT)

Khavinson VK, et al. Epithalon peptide induces telomerase activity and telomere elongation in human somatic cells. Bull Exp Biol Med 2003.

The original telomerase finding.

CELL STUDY

Al-dulaimi S, et al. Epitalon increases telomere length in human cell lines through telomerase upregulation or ALT activity. Biogerontology 2025.

Independent replication; also found effects in cancer cell lines, which supports the cancer exclusion.

CELL STUDY (FREE FULL TEXT)

Wu J, et al. The efficacy and safety of thymosin α1 for sepsis (TESTS): multicentre, double blinded, randomised, placebo controlled, phase 3 trial. BMJ 2025.

1,106 patients; no reduction in 28-day mortality versus placebo.

RCT

Gu B, et al. Efficacy of thymosin α1 for sepsis: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2025.

Updated pooled analysis including TESTS.

META-ANALYSIS

Wu J, et al. The efficacy of thymosin alpha 1 for severe sepsis (ETASS). Crit Care 2013.

Earlier smaller trial with a borderline mortality signal.

RCT